In the history of Breton pardons, it is useful to distinguish between the word and the event. The term pardon appeared in Brittany in the 14th century, as it did more broadly across Europe. It was used to designate an opportunity to receive indulgences, for example early release from Purgatory, granted by a papal bull. This often consisted of a visit to a church or chapel on the day of the feast of its patron saint, the Virgin or another local saint, particularly in Lower Brittany. It became so popular that within a few decades dozens of places of worship had obtained papal bulls granting indulgences. At that time, the term pardon underwent a shift in meaning: it gradually came to refer to the feast days of all patron saints of churches and chapels, even those that had never received a papal bull granting indulgences. This widespread usage can be traced back to the 16th century in the Breton-speaking area, more specifically within the linguistic family consisting of Léon, Trégor, and Cornouaille. In the rest of Brittany, including the Vannetais region, people long preferred the term assemblée. However, during the 19th and 20th centuries, they eventually adopted the term pardon, which by then had become a marker of Breton identity.
Receiving Indulgences ‘At Home’
One reason for their great success was that Bretons at the end of the Middle Ages were particularly receptive to questions concerning the afterlife and the actions that might hinder their own - or their deceased relatives’ - arrival in Paradise. The large number of local pardons meant that indulgences could be obtained close to home, without the need to undertake a long pilgrimage to Rome or Santiago de Compostela. Such high demand for indulgences explains why over the centuries, many pardons incorporated a strong penitential dimension: processions on bare knees around the churches, Confession and Absolution granted by a priest in order to receive Communion and an indulgence, as well as donations to the church and to the poor. Yet pardons always remained, inseparably, celebrations. In Brittany more than anywhere else, the pursuit of indulgences was layered onto pre-existing customs of communal festivity. From a period that is difficult to determine and likely varies greatly from one place to another, the feasts of saints, of churches, and of chapels have served as a primary expression of the identity of a given population: a small neighbourhood made up of a few hamlets (villages in the Breton sense of the word) around a rural chapel, a unit of parish land centred around the church, or a pilgrimage destination shared by a number of small rural zones.
There is little point in comparing these identities with those of Celtic clans, since the Breton identity has always been very different from that of Scotland or Ireland. Nevertheless, pardons can be recognized as an expression of strong communal sociability: a pardon is, par excellence, the day that brings people together and unites them as a group; a time for joyful celebration, for setting aside past grudges, and for demonstrating solidarity to neighbouring communities. The richness of the ceremonial component has been described in documents dating back to the 15th century. Alongside the religious ceremonies, dances, music, wrestling, and theatrical performances known as mysteries accompanied the reception of indulgences, creating a striking fusion of the sacred with the profane. In cases where no indulgences were granted, which was true for the majority of chapels, especially the poorest, the pardon was primarily a street festival, where the community came together to share religious, familial, and celebratory rites.
The Influence of the Catholic Reformation
The underlying framework of the pardon still exists today, but its outward form has naturally changed since the end of the Middle Ages, reflecting broader shifts in Breton society. Among the major changes, one can attribute significant influence to the Catholic Reformation, beginning in the 17th century. In keeping with the Council of Trent, the reformed clergy sought to integrate discipline into the celebrations and, where possible, to curb the dancing, physical violence, and excessive drinking. They also encouraged participants to turn the pardon into an act of devotion, prioritising Confession and Communion. This devout model of the pardon is particularly associated with the organised celebrations beginning in 1625 at the new pilgrimage location of Sainte-Anne d’Auray, under the vigilant supervision of the Carmelite monks. The devout aspect of the pardon went hand in hand with an expansion of ceremonial customs, particularly since services were sometimes held outdoors. From the 17th century onward, pardon processions became the large, organised events we recognise today, marked by an increase in crosses, banners, relics, and ex-votos. At pilgrimage sites, those coming to ask or give thanks for healing or protection formed a distinct group, candle in hand - what people called a “procession of miracles.” In the same spirit, pardons in the 18th century could include a ceremonial bonfire lit solemnly after Vespers, particularly in the Vannetais, Trégor, and Haute-Cornouaille regions. In most cases, this was not a Christianisation of a pagan rite, but rather the adoption by rural pardons of a custom borrowed from official urban celebrations. At major pilgrimage sites, the profane dimension of pardons therefore receded into the background.
This devout shift in focus was far less tangible in the myriad of small rural chapel pardons, where High Mass, Vespers, and processions were also introduced, but participants rarely confessed or received Communion. The festive, communal dimension continued to take precedence, centred on the figure of the saint, sacred waters or stones, or the tomb associated with them - often a Christianised pagan site or relic. In such places, the rector’s warnings against dancing, young people courting publicly, or wrestling were often ignored, except in regions more obedient to the clergy, such as Léon.
Pardons Drew In Large Crowds
In the 19th century, pardons acquired unprecedented external visibility thanks to the presence and interest of incoming observers - writers, artists, and travellers in search of Celtic authenticity. All were captivated by the originality of these gatherings, whether on a large or more intimate scale, where the markers of a distinct Breton identity were on prominent display: language, local dress (more diverse than ever in the 19th century), banners, dances, wrestling, travelling singers, stalls, mendicants...
The opening of the railways greatly increased attendance at major pardons, particularly those celebrating the crowning of the statue of the Virgin - Guingamp was the first pilgrimage site in 1857 to receive this papal favour - or of Saint Anne (Sainte-Anne-d’Auray, 1868; Sainte-Anne-la-Palud, 1913). Descriptions by writers, from Cambry to Anatole Le Braz, the painting skills of artists such as Jules Breton, Maurice Denis, and Paul Sérusier, the inspiration of musicians including Saint-Saëns, and even popular songs like La Paimpolaise by Botrel, collectively elevated Brittany as the celebrated “Land of Pardons” (Anatole Le Braz, 1894).
This explosion in popularity of major pardons from the late 19th century, such as Sainte-Anne-d’Auray, Le Folgoët, Saint-Yves de Tréguier, Sainte-Anne-la-Palud, Rumengol, Quelven, Josselin, and Moncontour should not, however, obscure a far more diverse reality: in countless smaller and more discreet forms, every parish celebrated its own annual pardon, keeping the tradition alive at a local level. It was, however, the rural chapels whose fate became uncertain during the years of the Great War. Many were deemed less necessary as places of worship, since improved country roads made access to the central village churches easier. Such indifference posed a frequent threat: when the clergy said nothing, when neighbours allowed it, or when the chapel fell into disrepair, it was not unusual for small pardons to cease. Yet, it often didn’t take much to spark a revival. From the embers that continued to smoulder here and there, a surprising collective momentum emerged in the 1980s concerning these chapels: associative groups flourished and revitalised buildings on the verge of being forgotten. In many places, pardons were once again celebrated, offering a welcome occasion for locals to come together, to integrate children and newcomers, and to reunite with those who, having moved away, returned for the event.
Major pardons continued to evolve throughout the 20th century. Large crowds remained a defining feature, now including a significant proportion of tourists, particularly during the summer and along the coast. The festive dimension increasingly took precedence, while the religious aspect was maintained discreetly in more solemn moments, such as the evening vigil or the dawn procession. Throughout the 20th century, the symbols of Breton identity - language, costumes, hymns, dances - were displayed more prominently than they were in everyday practice for many participants. Despite a perceptible decline in the number of believers, various innovations suggest that the religious dimension of the pardon continued to attract new audiences: the Islamo-Christian pardon in Vieux-Marché (from 1954), the motorcyclists’ pardon in Porcaro (1978), and the surfers’ pardons in Tronoën and Camaret, for example. The profane dimension, meanwhile, remains firmly embedded in the local calendar of events, with shared community meals, music, fest-noz, and cycling events continuing to mark the rhythm of village life.
In all these respects, the history of pardons demonstrates that Breton society has found in them one of its most unifying events, not only due to the number of participants, but also due to the diversity their components and the richness of their significance.
Translation: Tilly O'Neill
